Plants (2)

Algae

Green algae from Ernst Haeckel's Kunstformen der Natur, 1904.

Main article: Algae

Most algae are no longer classified within the Kingdom Plantae.^[4][5] The algae comprise several different groups of organisms that produce energy through photosynthesis, each of which arose independently from separate non-photosynthetic ancestors. Most conspicuous among the algae are the seaweeds, multicellular algae that may roughly resemble terrestrial plants, but are classified among the green, red, and brown algae. Each of these algal groups also includes various microscopic and single-celled organisms.

The two groups of green algae are the closest relatives of land plants (embryophytes). The first of these groups is the Charophyta (desmids and stoneworts), from which the embryophytes developed.^[6][7][8] The sister group to the combined embryophytes and charophytes is the other group of green algae, Chlorophyta, and this more inclusive group is collectively referred to as the green plants or Viridiplantae. The Kingdom Plantae is often taken to mean this monophyletic grouping. With a few exceptions among the green algae, all such forms have cell walls containing cellulose, have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and b, and store food in the form of starch. They undergo closed mitosis without centrioles, and typically have mitochondria with flat cristae.

The chloroplasts of green plants are surrounded by two membranes, suggesting they originated directly from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. The same is true of two additional groups of algae: the Rhodophyta (red algae) and Glaucophyta. All three groups together are generally believed to have a common origin, and so are classified together in the taxon Archaeplastida. In contrast, most other algae (e.g. heterokonts, haptophytes, dinoflagellates, and euglenids) have chloroplasts with three or four surrounding membranes. They are not close relatives of the green plants, presumably acquiring chloroplasts separately from ingested or symbiotic green and red algae.

Fungi

Main article: Fungi

The classification of fungi has been controversial until quite recently in the history of biology. Linnaeus' original classification placed the fungi within the Plantae, since they were unquestionably not animalian; this being the only other alternative. With later developments in microbiology, in the 19th century Ernst Haeckel felt that a third kingdom was required to classify newly discovered micro-organisms. The introduction of the new kingdom Protista as an alternative to Animalia, led to uncertainty as to whether fungi truly were best placed in the Plantae or whether they ought to be reclassified as protists. Haeckel himself found it difficult to decide and it was not until 1969 that a solution was found whereby Robert Whittaker proposed the creation of the kingdom Fungi. Molecular evidence has since shown that the concestor (last common ancestor) of the Fungi was probably more similar to that of the Animalia than of any other kingdom, including the Plantae.

Whittaker's original reclassification was based on the fundamental difference in nutrition between the Fungi and the Plantae. Unlike plants, which are generally autotrophic multicellular phototrophs which gain carbon through photosynthesis, fungi are generally heterotrophic uni- or multi-cellular saprotrophs, obtaining carbon by breaking down and absorbing surrounding materials. In addition, the substructure of multicellular fungi takes the form of many chitinous microscopic strands called hyphae, which may be further subdivided into cells or may form a syncytium containing many eukaryotic nuclei. Fruiting bodies, of which mushrooms are most familiar example, are the reproductive structures of fungi.

Diversity

About 350,000 species of plants, defined as seed plants, bryophytes, ferns and fern allies, are estimated to exist currently. As of 2004, some 287,655 species had been identified, of which 258,650 are flowering plants, 16,000 bryophytes, 11,000 ferns and 8,000 green algae.

Diversity of living plant divisions

Informal group	Division name	Common name	No. of living species
Green algae	Chlorophyta	green algae (chlorophytes)	3,800 [9]
	Charophyta	green algae (desmids & charophytes)	4,000 - 6,000 [10]
Bryophytes	Marchantiophyta	liverworts	6,000 - 8,000 [11]
	Anthocerotophyta	hornworts	100 - 200 [12]
	Bryophyta	mosses	12,000 [13]
Pteridophytes	Lycopodiophyta	club mosses	1,200 [5]
	Pteridophyta	ferns, whisk ferns & horsetails	11,000 [5]
Seed plants	Cycadophyta	cycads	160 [14]
	Ginkgophyta	ginkgo	1 [15]
	Pinophyta	conifers	630 [5]
	Gnetophyta	gnetophytes	70 [5]
	Magnoliophyta	flowering plants	258,650 [16]

The naming of plants is governed by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature and International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (see cultivated plant taxonomy).

Evolution

Further information: Evolutionary history of plants

The evolution of plants has resulted in increasing levels of complexity, from the earliest algal mats, through bryophytes, lycopods, ferns to the complex gymnosperms and angiosperms of today. While the groups which appeared earlier continue to thrive, especially in the environments in which they evolved, each new grade of organisation has eventually become more "successful" than its predecessors by most measures.

Evidence suggests that an algal scum formed on the land 1,200 million years ago, but it was not until the Ordovician Period, around 450 million years ago, that land plants appeared.^[17] These began to diversify in the late Silurian Period, around 420 million years ago, and the fruits of their diversification are displayed in remarkable detail in an early Devonian fossil assemblage from the Rhynie chert. This chert preserved early plants in cellular detail, petrified in volcanic springs. By the middle of the Devonian Period most of the features recognised in plants today are present, including roots, leaves and secondary wood, and by late Devonian times seeds had evolved.^[18] Late Devonian plants had thereby reached a degree of sophistication that allowed them to form forests of tall trees. Evolutionary innovation continued after the Devonian period. Most plant groups were relatively unscathed by the Permo-Triassic extinction event, although the structures of communities changed. This may have set the scene for the evolution of flowering plants in the Triassic (~200 million years ago), which exploded in the Cretaceous and Tertiary. The latest major group of plants to evolve were the grasses, which became important in the mid Tertiary, from around 40 million years ago. The grasses, as well as many other groups, evolved new mechanisms of metabolism to survive the low CO₂ and warm, dry conditions of the tropics over the last 10 million years.

Plants (1)

For other uses, see Plant (disambiguation).

Plants Temporal range: Early Cambrian to recent, but see text, 520–0 Ma PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K Pg N
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
(unranked):	Archaeplastida
Kingdom:	Plantae Haeckel, 1866[1]
Divisions
Green algae Chlorophyta Charophyta Land plants (embryophytes) Non-vascular land plants (bryophytes) Marchantiophyta—liverworts Anthocerotophyta—hornworts Bryophyta—mosses †Horneophytopsida Vascular plants (tracheophytes) †Rhyniophyta—rhyniophytes †Zosterophyllophyta—zosterophylls Lycopodiophyta—clubmosses †Trimerophytophyta—trimerophytes Pteridophyta—ferns and horsetails †Progymnospermophyta Seed plants (spermatophytes) †Pteridospermatophyta—seed ferns Pinophyta—conifers Cycadophyta—cycads Ginkgophyta—ginkgo Gnetophyta—gnetae Magnoliophyta—flowering plants †Nematophytes

Plants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. They include familiar organisms such as trees, flowers, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The scientific study of plants, known as botany, has identified about 350,000 extant species of plants, defined as seed plants, bryophytes, ferns and fern allies. As of 2004, some 287,655 species had been identified, of which 258,650 are flowering and 18,000 bryophytes (see table below). Green plants, sometimes called Viridiplantae, obtain most of their energy from sunlight via a process called photosynthesis.

Contents [hide] 1 Definition 1.1 Current definitions of Plantae 1.2 Algae 1.3 Fungi 2 Diversity 2.1 Evolution 2.2 Embryophytes 2.3 Fossils 3 Structure, growth, and development 3.1 Factors affecting growth 3.2 Plant cell 4 Physiology 4.1 Photosynthesis 4.2 Immune system 4.3 Internal distribution 5 Ecology 5.1 Distribution 5.2 Ecological relationships 6 Importance 6.1 Food 6.2 Nonfood products 6.3 Aesthetic uses 6.4 Scientific and cultural uses 6.5 Negative effects 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links

Definition

Aristotle divided all living things between plants (which generally do not move), and animals (which often are mobile to catch their food). In Linnaeus' system, these became the Kingdoms Vegetabilia (later Metaphyta or Plantae) and Animalia (also called Metazoa). Since then, it has become clear that the Plantae as originally defined included several unrelated groups, and the fungi and several groups of algae were removed to new kingdoms. However, these are still often considered plants in many contexts, both technical and popular.

Current definitions of Plantae

When the name Plantae or plant is applied to a specific taxon, it is usually referring to one of three concepts. From least to most inclusive, these three groupings are:

Name(s)	Scope	Description
Land plants, also known as Embryophyta or Metaphyta.	Plantae sensu strictissimo	This group includes the liverworts, hornworts, mosses, and vascular plants, as well as fossil plants similar to these surviving groups.
Green plants - also known as Viridiplantae, Viridiphyta or Chlorobionta	Plantae sensu stricto	Includes the land plants plus Charophyta (i.e. stoneworts), and Chlorophyta (i.e., other green algae such as sea lettuce). Viridiplantae encompass a group of organisms that possess chlorophyll a and b, have plastids that are bound by only two membranes, are capable of storing starch, and have cellulose in their cell walls. It is this clade which is mainly the subject of this article.
Archaeplastida, Plastida or Primoplantae	Plantae sensu lato	Comprises the green plants above plus Rhodophyta (red algae) and Glaucophyta (glaucophyte algae). This clade includes the organisms that eons ago acquired their chloroplasts directly by engulfing cyanobacteria.

Outside of formal scientific contexts, the term "plant" implies an association with certain traits, such as multicellularity, cellulose, and photosynthesis.^[2][3] Many of the classification controversies involve organisms that are rarely encountered and are of minimal apparent economic significance, but are crucial in developing an understanding of the evolution of modern flora.

Gambar Daerah Yang Belum Terkena Polusi

Dampak Polusi Udara

Pencemaran udara adalah kehadiran satu atau lebih substansi fisik, kimia, atau biologi di atmosfer dalam jumlah yang dapat membahayakan kesehatan manusia, hewan, dan tumbuhan, mengganggu estetika dan kenyamanan, atau merusak properti.

Pencemaran udara dapat ditimbulkan oleh sumber-sumber alami maupun kegiatan manusia. Beberapa definisi gangguan fisik seperti polusi suara, panas, radiasi atau polusi cahaya dianggap sebagai polusi udara. Sifat alami udara mengakibatkan dampak pencemaran udara dapat bersifat langsung dan lokal, regional, maupun global.

   jakarta

Substansi pencemar yang terdapat di udara dapat masuk ke dalam tubuh melalui sistem pernapasan. Jauhnya penetrasi zat pencemar ke dalam tubuh bergantung kepada jenis pencemar. Partikulat berukuran besar dapat tertahan di saluran pernapasan bagian atas, sedangkan partikulat berukuran kecil dan gas dapat mencapai paru-paru. Dari paru-paru, zat pencemar diserap oleh sistem peredaran darah dan menyebar ke seluruh tubuh.

Dampak kesehatan yang paling umum dijumpai adalah ISNA (infeksi saluran napas atas), termasuk di antaranya, asma, bronkitis, dan gangguan pernapasan lainnya. Beberapa zat pencemar dikategorikan sebagai toksik dan karsinogenik.

memperkirakan dampak pencemaran udara di Jakarta yang berkaitan dengan kematian prematur, perawatan rumah sakit, berkurangnya hari kerja efektif, dan ISNA pada tahun 1998 senilai dengan 1,8 trilyun rupiah dan akan meningkat menjadi 4,3 trilyun rupiah di tahun 2015.

BENEFITS GREENING (versi Inggris)

Greening is one of important activities that should be implemented in conceptual in addressing the environmental crisis. So important that greening is a national program implemented throughout Indonesia.

Many facts show that no development is rarely built on agricultural land and green open spaces. While plants in the ecosystem role as the first manufacturer to convert solar energy into potential energy for other creatures and turn CO2 into O2 in the process of photosynthesis. Therefore, by increasing greenery in urban areas means to reduce CO2 or other pollutants that contribute the greenhouse effect or climate disruption. In addition to the vegetation plays in the lives and health of the physical environment, also play an aesthetic as well as mental health. Given the important role of this vegetation, especially in urban areas to address the environmental crisis will require planning and planting vegetation to greening conceptually.

From the various observations and research there is a tendency that the implementation of greening is not conceptual, in fact so impressed origin. Selecting plant species for reasons easily available, cheap and fast growing.

Urban greening

Greening in the broad sense is any power to restore, maintain and improve the condition of land for production and can function optimally, both as a regulator of the water system or a protective environment. There are also saying that the greening of the city is an effort to green the city by carrying out the management of city parks, neighborhood parks, green belt and so on. In this case, urban greening is an activity of filling the open space in urban areas.

In the process of photosynthesis of green plants take CO2 and release O2 C6H12O6 and indispensable role of living things.Therefore, the role of green plants are needed to capture the CO2 and release O2 back into the air. In addition, various metabolic processes of green plants to provide various functions to the needs of living things that can improve environmental quality.

Each year the plants on this earth mempersenyawakan approximately 150,000 million tons of CO2 and 25,000 million tons of hydrogen to release 400,000 million tons of oxygen into the atmosphere, and to produce 450,000 million tonnes of organic substances. Every hour 1 ha green leaves absorbs 8 kg of CO2 which is equivalent to the CO2 that human breath diembuskan by approximately 200 people in the same time. Each tree planted has the capacity to cool the same air with an average of 5 air conditioning (AC), which operated 20 hours continuously every day. Each 93 m2 of trees can absorb noise by 8 decibels, and every 1 ha of trees able to neutralize the CO2 removed 20 vehicles. (Zoer'aini Irwan Knopf, 1996).

Once the importance of the role of plants on this earth in handling the crisis, especially in urban environments, it is appropriate if the existence of plants received serious attention in the implementation of urban greening as an element of the urban forest.

Greening role and function (1) As the lungs of the city. Plants as green element, the growth yield of acid (O2) that is necessary for living things to respiration, (2) As a regulator of the environment (micro), the vegetation will cause local environmental air into cool, comfortable and fresh, (3) Environmental Creator life (ecological), (4) Balancing nature (adaphis) is the establishment of places of natural life for the animals that live around it, (5) Protection (protective), the physical condition of the natural surroundings (high winds, hot sun, gases or dust -dust), (6) beauty (aesthetics); (7) Health (Hygiene), (8) Recreation and education (educational); (9) Socio economic political.

As dikemukan by Eckbo (1956) that the choice of plants for greenery to grow well should be considered the terms of horticulture (ecological) and physical conditions. Horticultural Terms of responses and tolerance to temperature, water requirements, needs and tolerance for sunlight, soil needs, pests and diseases, as well as other physical conditions of greening purposes, cultivation requirements, canopy shape, color, aroma.

Elements of urban forest

Functions and benefits of forests, among others, to deliver results, pencagaran flora and fauna, ground water and erosion control, climate amelioration. If forests are located in the city functions and benefits of forests, among others, creating a micro climate, engineering, architectural, aesthetic, modification of temperature, seepage of rain, wind and air protection, air pollution control, waste management and minimize the reflection of sunlight, soil erosion control , reducing the flow surface, binding the soil.Construction of vegetation may regulate water balance by way of interception, infiltration, evaporation and transpiration.

Review the functions of urban afforestation and forest functions can be said that urban greening is an element of the urban forest.While the urban forest is a part of urban green open space. Forest city (urban forestry) by Grey and Denehe (1978), includes all woody vegetation in an urban environment, ranging from small villages to large cities. Fukuara et al. (1988) argued about the urban forest, the open space is overgrown with woody vegetation in urban areas that provide maximum environmental benefit to residents of the city in the usefulness of protection, aesthetics and recreation and other special.

Meanwhile, according to Grey and Denehe (1978), forest city (urban forestry) include all woody vegetation in an urban environment, ranging from small villages to large cities. Given the nature of forestry yard contains aspires to the interests of the people, then that is grounds forestry development seems to be more democratic is the people-managed agroforestry systems.The yard can produce wood, bamboo, carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and medicines.

As a consequence of plants as the first manufacturer in the ecosystem, and considering the functions of the urban forest and urban greening function relies heavily on vegetation that is used then no longer disputed area of ​​land as a condition of the urban forest. What matters is the number and diversity of vegetation in urban garden as much as possible. Thus, urban greening as an element of the urban forest needs to be improved conceptually includes planning, implementation and maintenance by considering the aesthetic aspects, environmental preservation and functional. Implementation shall be in accordance with the planning as well as maintenance must be done continuously.

Planting techniques

Major factors to note are the tree-planting technique adala, (1) Selection of seed plants. Generative seeds are derived from seeds, a seed that is more appropriate because it has roots upside and can live longer. Vegetative seedlings, are the seeds derived from vegetative parts of plants, such as stems, leaves and roots. Vegetative seedlings are generally less robust and shallow roots, so quickly destroy sidewalks, streets or drainage channels.

Good seed has grown at least in the container for 6 months with a minimum height bar + 1:50 m and 0:05 m in diameter, to test it enough to pull out the seeds. If the seedlings easily separated from the container means new and has not moved quite well planted on the ground, on the contrary, if difficult to remove means roots is well established and can be planted in the field;

(2) Investment. Planting hole needs to be prepared at least one week before planting. Size of planting hole is very dependent on the size of the plant. Standard size planting hole is 0.75 m (height) x 0.90 m (width) x 0.90 m (length), (3) Nursing pascatanam.Maintaining a position to grow in order to remain upright and stable. Watering the plants once every 2-3 days, especially in the dry season while throwing twigs that kerimg. 3 months fertilize crops with fertilizer NPK 25 grams per hole

Other forest benefits are:

1. As suplyer Oxygen which is the main raw material for human respiratory

2. As the flood prevention

3. As a natural conditioning

4. As the world's lungs

MANFAAT PENGHIJAUAN (versi Indonesia)

PENGHIJAUAN adalah salah satu kegiatan penting yang harus dilaksanakan secara konseptual dalam menangani krisis lingkungan. Begitu pentingnya sehingga penghijauan sudah merupakan program nasional yang dilaksanakan di seluruh Indonesia.

Banyak fakta yang menunjukkan bahwa tidak jarang pembangunan dibangun di lahan pertanian maupun ruang terbuka hijau. Padahal tumbuhan dalam ekosistem berperan sebagai produsen pertama yang mengubah energi surya menjadi energi potensial untuk makhluk lainnya dan mengubah CO2 menjadi O2 dalam proses fotosintesis. Sehingga dengan meningkatkan penghijauan di perkotaan berarti dapat mengurangi CO2 atau polutan lainnya yang berperan terjadinya efek rumah kaca atau gangguan iklim. Di samping vegetasi berperan dalam kehidupan dan kesehatan lingkungan secara fisik, juga berperan estetika serta kesehatan jiwa. Mengingat pentingnya peranan vegetasi ini terutama di perkotaan untuk menangani krisis lingkungan maka diperlukan perencanaan dan penanaman vegetasi untuk penghijauan secara konseptual.

Dari berbagai pengamatan dan penelitian ada kecenderungan bahwa pelaksanaan penghijauan belum konseptual, malah terkesan asal jadi. Memilih jenis tanaman dengan alasan mudah diperoleh, murah harganya dan cepat tumbuh.

Penghijauan perkotaan

Penghijauan dalam arti luas adalah segala daya untuk memulihkan, memelihara dan meningkatkan kondisi lahan agar dapat berproduksi dan berfungsi secara optimal, baik sebagai pengatur tata air atau pelindung lingkungan. Ada pula yang mengatakan bahwa penghijauan kota adalah suatu usaha untuk menghijaukan kota dengan melaksanakan pengelolaan taman-taman kota, taman-taman lingkungan, jalur hijau dan sebagainya. Dalam hal ini penghijauan perkotaan merupakan kegiatan pengisian ruang terbuka di perkotaan.

Pada proses fotosintesa tumbuhan hijau mengambil CO2 dan mengeluarkan C6H12O6 serta peranan O2 yang sangat dibutuhkan makhluk hidup. Oleh karena itu, peranan tumbuhan hijau sangat diperlukan untuk menjaring CO2 dan melepas O2 kembali ke udara. Di samping itu berbagai proses metabolisme tumbuhan hijau dapat memberikan berbagai fungsi untuk kebutuhan makhluk hidup yang dapat meningkatkan kualitas lingkungan.

Setiap tahun tumbuh-tumbuhan di bumi ini mempersenyawakan sekira 150.000 juta ton CO2 dan 25.000 juta ton hidrogen dengan membebaskan 400.000 juta ton oksigen ke atmosfer, serta menghasilkan 450.000 juta ton zat-zat organik. Setiap jam 1 ha daun-daun hijau menyerap 8 kg CO2 yang ekuivalen dengan CO2 yang diembuskan oleh napas manusia sekira 200 orang dalam waktu yang sama. Setiap pohon yang ditanam mempunyai kapasitas mendinginkan udara sama dengan rata-rata 5 pendingin udara (AC), yang dioperasikan 20 jam terus menerus setiap harinya. Setiap 93 m2 pepohonan mampu menyerap kebisingan suara sebesar 8 desibel, dan setiap 1 ha pepohonan mampu menetralkan CO2 yang dikeluarkan 20 kendaraan.(Zoer’aini Djamal Irwan,1996).

Begitu pentingnya peranan tumbuhan di bumi ini dalam menangani krisis lingkungan terutama di perkotaan, sangat tepat jika keberadaan tumbuhan mendapat perhatian serius dalam pelaksanaan penghijauan perkotaan sebagai unsur hutan kota.

Penghijauan berperan dan berfungsi (1) Sebagai paru-paru kota. Tanaman sebagai elemen hijau, pada pertumbuhannya menghasilkan zat asam (O2) yang sangat diperlukan bagi makhluk hidup untuk pernapasan; (2) Sebagai pengatur lingkungan (mikro), vegetasi akan menimbulkan hawa lingkungan setempat menjadi sejuk, nyaman dan segar; (3) Pencipta lingkungan hidup (ekologis); (4) Penyeimbangan alam (adaphis) merupakan pembentukan tempat-tempat hidup alam bagi satwa yang hidup di sekitarnya; (5) Perlindungan (protektif), terhadap kondisi fisik alami sekitarnya (angin kencang, terik matahari, gas atau debu-debu); (6) Keindahan (estetika); (7) Kesehatan (hygiene); (8) Rekreasi dan pendidikan (edukatif); (9) Sosial politik ekonomi.

Seperti yang dikemukan oleh Eckbo (1956) bahwa pemilihan jenis tanaman untuk penghijauan agar tumbuh dengan baik hendaknya dipertimbangkan syarat-syarat hortikultura (ekologikal) dan syarat- syarat fisik. Syarat hortikultural yaitu respons dan toleransi terhadap temperatur, kebutuhan air, kebutuhan dan toleransi terhadap cahaya matahari, kebutuhan tanah, hama dan penyakit, serta syarat-syarat fisik lainnya yaitu tujuan penghijauan, persyaratan budi daya, bentuk tajuk, warna, aroma.

Unsur hutan kota

Fungsi dan manfaat hutan antara lain untuk memberikan hasil, pencagaran flora dan fauna, pengendalian air tanah dan erosi, ameliorasi iklim. Jika hutan tersebut berada di dalam kota fungsi dan manfaat hutan antara lain menciptakan iklim mikro, engineering, arsitektural, estetika, modifikasi suhu, peresapan air hujan, perlindungan angin dan udara, pengendalian polusi udara, pengelolaan limbah dan memperkecil pantulan sinar matahari, pengendalian erosi tanah, mengurangi aliran permukaan, mengikat tanah. Konstruksi vegetasi dapat mengatur keseimbangan air dengan cara intersepsi, infiltrasi, evaporasi dan transpirasi.

Menelaah fungsi penghijauan perkotaan dan fungsi hutan dapat dikatakan bahwa penghijauan perkotaan merupakan unsur dari hutan kota. Sedangkan hutan kota adalah bagian dari ruang terbuka hijau kota. Hutan kota (urban forestry) menurut Grey dan Denehe (1978), meliputi semua vegetasi berkayu di dalam lingkungan pemukiman, mulai dari kampung yang kecil sampai kota besar. Fukuara dkk. (1988) mengemukakan tentang hutan kota, yaitu ruang terbuka yang ditumbuhi vegetasi berkayu di wilayah perkotaan yang memberikan manfaat lingkungan sebesar-besarnya kepada penduduk kota dalam kegunaan proteksi, estetika serta rekreasi khusus lainnya.

Sedangkan menurut Grey dan Denehe (1978), hutan kota (urban forestry) meliputi semua vegetasi berkayu di dalam lingkungan pemukiman, mulai dari kampung yang kecil sampai kota besar. Mengingat pekarangan mengandung sifat perhutanan yang beraspirasi untuk kepentingan rakyat, maka pengembangan perhutanan yang bersifat pekarangan ini tampaknya lebih demokrasi yaitu sistem agroforestry yang dikelola rakyat. Pekarangan dapat menghasilkan kayu, bambu, karbohidrat, protein, lemak, vitamin dan obat-obatan.

Sebagai konsekuensi tumbuhan sebagai produsen pertama dalam ekosistem, dan mengingat fungsi hutan kota dan fungsi penghijauan perkotaan sangat bergantung kepada vegetasi yang digunakan maka tidak perlu lagi dipersoalkan luas lahan sebagai syarat hutan kota. Yang penting adalah jumlah dan keanekaragaman vegetasi yang ditaman di perkotaan sebanyak mungkin. Dengan demikian penghijauan perkotaan sebagai unsur hutan kota perlu ditingkatkan secara konseptual meliputi perencanaan, pelaksanaan dan pemeliharaan dengan mempertimbangkan aspek estetika, pelestarian lingkungan dan fungsional. Pelaksanaan harus sesuai dengan perencanaan begitu pula pemeliharaan harus dilakukan secara terus-menerus.

Teknik penanaman

Faktor-faktor utama yang perlu diperhatikan yaitu dalam teknik penanaman pohon adala, (1) Pemilihan bibit tanaman. Bibit generatif adalah berasal dari biji, merupakan bibit yang lebih tepat karena mempunyai akar tunggang dan dapat hidup lebih lama. Bibit vegetatif, adalah bibit yang berasal dari bagian-bagian vegetatif tanaman, seperti batang, daun dan akar. Bibit vegetatif umumnya kurang kokoh dan perakarannya dangkal sehingga cepat merusak trotoar, jalan atau saluran drainase.

Bibit yang baik sekurang-kurangnya telah tumbuh di wadahnya selama 6 bulan dengan batang tinggi minimal + 1.50 m dan diameter 0.05 m, untuk mengujinya cukup dengan mencabut bibit tersebut. Apabila bibit mudah lepas dari wadahnya berarti baru dipindahkan dan belum cukup baik ditanam di lapangan, sebaliknya jika sulit dilepaskan berarti perakarannya sudah terbentuk dengan baik dan dapat ditanam di lapangan;

(2) Penanaman. Lubang tanam perlu dipersiapkan sedikitnya satu minggu sebelum penanaman dilakukan. Ukuran lubang tanam sangat bergantung pada besarnya tanaman. Ukuran standar lubang tanam adalah 0.75 m (tinggi) x 0.90 m (lebar) x 0.90 m (panjang); (3) Perawatan pascatanam. Mempertahankan posisi tumbuh agar tetap tegak dan stabil. Menyiram tanaman 2-3 hari sekali terutama di musim kemarau sambil membuang ranting-ranting yang kerimg. Memupuk tanaman 3 bulan sekali dengan pupuk NPK 25 gram per lubang

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Manfaat hutan yang lain adalah:

1. Sebagai suplyer Oksigen yang merupakan bahan baku utama untuk pernafasan manusia

2. Sebagai pencegah banjir

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CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION (versi Inggris)

Water pollution refers to changes in physical, biological, chemical and water body conditions that would disrupt the balance of the ecosystem.
Like other types of pollution, water pollution results when a large amount of waste that comes from various sources of pollutants can no longer be accommodated by natural ecosystems.Consequently, if the waste is not destroyed as fast as manufactured, they create other organisms that are not beneficial to humans and many. But that's not all. Learn more about what causes water pollution.
Actually there are specific reasons that are behind what causes water pollution. However, it is important to familiarize yourself with the two main categories of water pollution. Some pollution comes directly from one specific location. This type of pollution is called point source pollution such as sewage pipes contaminated water flowing into rivers and farmland. Meanwhile, non-point source pollution is pollution that comes from large areas such as gasoline and other dirt from the highway that goes into lakes and rivers.
What causes water pollution? Who causes that should be responsible for damages brought by their pollutants? How pollution sources contaminate different bodies of water?
One of the main causes of water pollution that has caused serious environmental health problems and is a pollutant that comes from chemical and industrial processes. When the factories and producers poured chemicals and animal waste directly into rivers and streams, the water becomes toxic and a low oxygen level causes many aquatic organisms die. These wastes include solvents and toxic substances. Most of the waste is not biodegradable. Power plants, paper mills, refineries, automobile factories dispose waste into the rivers.
The hot water from power plants is called thermal pollution. This kills aquatic animals and plants by reducing the oxygen content of water. Power plants use water to cool their engines, thus changing the water temperature.
Apart from thermal pollution, there are also organic and inorganic pollutants. Organic wastes include refuse from slaughter houses, fish and meat canning factories, and leather tanning companies, manufacturing plants, pesticides and oil companies. Since that decomposes organic waste by microorganisms, most of the oxygen dissolved in water use and discharge began to stink.
Inorganic waste including toxic and corrosive substances like acids, heavy metals, mercury, cadmium and lead which can disrupt normal body processes. Battery manufacturers, mining, paper mills increase the concentration of a hazardous and toxic mercury to things that are most alive.
Other causes of water pollution from pesticides. Agricultural pesticides poison aquatic plants and animals. animal manure, chemical fertilizer, phosphate detergent pollute water by providing excess nutrients. pollution is known as eutrophication. This greatly increases the growth of algae in water, thereby reducing the amount of oxygen levels in water causes the death of many aquatic organisms.
Water is also polluted by garbage specifically plastics and other plastic-like substance. Some plastics such as nylon fish and marine animals can involve others. Plastics that have broken up into small pieces to be eaten by sea creatures which can cause their death. Because the plastic is non-biodegradable, it will continue to kill more fish.
One cause more water pollution is derived from household waste.Because no one wants to live in polluted areas, near the dumpsite or landfill, waste water and untreated manure washed from the home polluting different bodies of water. Most developing countries practice this type of waste disposal. Even in developed countries perform poorly treated discharge to the canal causes the main body of water. The danger is when the sewage pipes were broken and dirty drinking water. When this happens, the damage would open a wide range of water-borne diseases that would cause danger to consumers.
Last pollution among the causes of water self-care and household products. Shampoo, lotions, moisturizers, hair dyes, bleach, detergent, fabric softener, and many others contribute to water pollution. Human waste is not the only one who went into the ditch.This product also joined the waste water pollutes rivers, streams, and lakes.
Although the world is full of water, only three percent were drinking.Included in 3% of drinking water source is a river, spring, river, lakes, and waterfalls are continually threatened and contaminated by various factors that cause water pollution. If the sources of water pollution are not controlled, these basic needs will eventually become a rare commodity that only a few are able to have.